10 Sustainable Packaging Examples for UK Businesses

The most sustainable pack isn't the one made from a fashionable material. It's the one that works within its full operating system. A paper mailer that fails in wet conditions can create damage, replacement shipments and wasted stock. A reusable container that never returns may perform worse than a well-designed single-use format. A compostable film has limited value if customers have no suitable disposal route.

That matters across UK e-commerce, pharmaceuticals, logistics, retail and industrial supply chains. The right decision depends on product protection, material use, purchase cost, supply availability, transport efficiency and end-of-life infrastructure, not appearance alone. The UK's packaging targets reinforce that practical approach. The Resources and Waste Strategy commits to recycling at least 65% of packaging waste by 2025 and 70% by 2030, while provisional 2024 results range from 64.1% to 75.2%, depending on the measurement basis and material mix (Defra's packaging progress dataset).

The sustainable packaging examples below compare established options with emerging technologies. Each is assessed through recycled content, compostability, reusability, right-sizing, sector suitability and implementation risk. MSP Packaging can produce plain or bespoke flexible packaging using virgin, recycled or sustainable materials, giving buyers scope to match specifications with real operational requirements. For e-commerce fulfilment decisions, businesses can also review Sendvo's ecommerce solutions.

Table of Contents

• 1. Recycled Polythene Packaging
  • Where it fits best
• 2. Minimalist and Right-Sized Packaging Design
  • Measure before removing
• 3. Paper-Based Packaging and Paper Mailers
  • Match paper to the product
• 4. Reusable and Returnable Packaging Systems
  • The reverse journey determines the result
• 5. Plant-Based and Biopolymer Packaging
  • Treat certification as an operating requirement
• 6. Biodegradable and Compostable Polythene
  • Match the material to a verified recovery route
• 7. Water-Soluble Packaging Films
  • A narrow use case can be a strength
• 8. Mushroom-Based and Mycelium Packaging
  • Start with cushioning, not a complete pack redesign
• 9. Seaweed and Algae-Based Packaging Films
  • Assess the marine-material story carefully
• 10. Recycled and Upcycled Textile Packaging
  • Make the second life obvious
• 10 Sustainable Packaging Options Comparison
• Turn Sustainable Packaging Into a Measurable Operating Decision

1. Recycled Polythene Packaging

Recycled polythene is one of the most practical options for high-volume packaging operations because it retains the flexibility, tear resistance and moisture protection that courier bags, mailing bags and sacks already provide. Instead of relying entirely on new polymer, manufacturers can incorporate post-consumer or post-industrial material into the film. That makes the format especially relevant to fulfilment centres, logistics providers, retailers and pharmaceutical operations that need reliable protection at scale.

The UK's material data explains why this option deserves careful attention. In 2023, the country generated about 2.2 million metric tons of plastic packaging, but only 52.5% was recycled (UK packaging waste data). Recycled polythene doesn't solve collection or sorting limitations by itself, but it can reduce reliance on virgin polymer when the finished packaging remains suitable for its intended use.

Where it fits best

A fashion fulfilment operation might use recycled mailing bags for dispatch, while a logistics company could standardise recycled courier bags across a delivery network. Retailers may specify recycled carrier bags, and pharmaceutical manufacturers may select recycled security bags where product and compliance testing support that application.

Buyers should assess more than the supplier's headline description:

• Verify composition: Ask for documented recycled-content levels, material specifications and relevant certifications.
• Test performance: Check seal strength, puncture resistance, opacity, print quality and colour consistency against actual requirements.
• Protect continuity: Confirm that the supplier can maintain consistent feedstock and production capacity across the contract term.
• Use a blended structure where needed: A combination of recycled and virgin polymer may be appropriate where strength, clarity or hygiene requirements demand it.

The UK Plastic Packaging Tax gives recycled content a direct procurement relevance. Packaging containing less than 30% recycled plastic is taxed at £223.69 per tonne, while packaging with at least 30% recycled plastic is exempt under the stated threshold (UK recycled-content regulation overview).

Procurement rule: Specify recycled content, performance requirements and the intended collection route together. None of those criteria is sufficient alone.

For buyers comparing flexible formats, MSP's guidance on flexible packaging solutions provides a useful starting point for matching material selection with application needs.

2. Minimalist and Right-Sized Packaging Design

The simplest sustainable packaging example may be a smaller version of the pack already in use. Right-sizing removes empty space, avoids unnecessary layers and aligns the packaging dimensions with the product. It can apply to polythene mailing bags, paper envelopes, cartons and hybrid formats, so it doesn't require a complete material replacement.

An e-commerce brand could redesign its courier bags around actual garment dimensions rather than using one oversized format for every order. A pharmaceutical manufacturer might reduce security-bag dimensions to fit the medication and documentation. A logistics operator could standardise a carefully selected range of mailing-bag sizes, while a retailer could remove decorative or structural features that add material without improving protection.

Measure before removing

Material reduction mustn't create a false economy. A bag that's too tight may split during packing. A mailer with no tolerance may damage products at the seal. Packaging that saves material but increases returns, replacements or customer complaints can undermine the original objective.

A sound redesign process includes:

• Audit current dimensions: Record pack size, material weight, closure method and product fit across representative orders.
• Test transit conditions: Assess compression, abrasion, moisture exposure and handling before approving a smaller specification.
• Set tolerances: Retain enough working room for packing variation without returning to excessive headspace.
• Standardise intelligently: Use common dimensions across related product families where the fit remains safe.
• Track the outcome: Compare packaging weight, purchase cost, packing speed, damage rates and fulfilment errors before and after the change.

Tesco's packaging programme demonstrates why source reduction should sit alongside material substitution. Since introducing its 4Rs strategy in 2019, Tesco says it has removed around 4,500 tonnes of packaging from its UK business and eliminated 2 billion pieces of plastic packaging (Tesco's 4Rs report). Those measures are operational KPIs, not just environmental language.

Smaller, simpler packaging often improves the business case because it reduces material at the point of manufacture, storage and dispatch.

3. Paper-Based Packaging and Paper Mailers

Paper mailers, kraft envelopes and fibre-based protective formats work well when the product is light, dry and resistant to compression. Clothing, documents, books, lightweight retail goods and selected non-perishable items often fit this specification. The operational case depends on more than material choice: paper must protect the order, remain available at the required volume and enter a suitable recovery route after delivery.

Paper and cardboard packaging has achieved a higher UK recycling rate than plastic packaging, according to the UK government's waste statistics. That advantage can disappear when packaging combines paper with incompatible laminates, coatings, windows, tapes or adhesives. Wet contamination and local collection rules also affect the likely end-of-life outcome.

Match paper to the product

Online fashion retailers such as ASOS and John Lewis may use paper mailers for clothing because garments generally need limited cushioning. Independent e-commerce brands can use kraft courier bags for other soft goods. Cosmetics businesses may select padded paper mailers when the internal structure and moisture barrier suit the product.

The specification should answer practical questions:

• How much protection is needed? Choose paper weight and construction for the product's puncture, abrasion and compression risks.
• Will humidity matter? Test exposure in damp warehouses, delivery vehicles and customer storage conditions before approving the format.
• Is the structure recoverable? Confirm that coatings, windows, tapes and adhesives fit the intended paper recycling route.
• Does the pack contain recycled fibre? Request documented post-consumer content when recycled material is part of the purchasing objective.
• Can customers identify disposal instructions? Clear guidance helps prevent a recyclable pack entering the wrong waste stream.

Choose paper mailers where they reduce material without transferring protection, returns or disposal problems elsewhere.

For businesses assessing kraft formats, kraft paper roll options can inform decisions about paper handling, wrapping and protective applications.

4. Reusable and Returnable Packaging Systems

Reusable packaging can outperform a single-use alternative, but only when the operating system makes repeated use realistic. The container must survive handling, customers or business partners must return it, and the organisation must manage collection, cleaning, inspection, storage and redistribution. Without those elements, “reusable” describes a product feature rather than a functioning system.

Milk distribution illustrates the model clearly. Returnable glass bottles and plastic crates move through a defined loop, while breweries can use pooled containers and logistics operators can deploy returnable transit packaging. Restaurant supply chains may also use reusable delivery containers where routes and collection points are predictable. Subscription businesses such as Grind Coffee and Who Gives A Crap provide examples of brands exploring packaging models linked to repeat customer relationships.

The reverse journey determines the result

WRAP's UK Plastics Pact evidence highlights the importance of return rates and system efficiency. Its case study found that a plastic bottle could halve the carbon footprint of single-use milk bottles after four returns, while heavier glass bottles needed more than 15 returns to reach comparable emissions savings (WRAP's UK Plastics Pact annual report). The lesson is not that one material always wins. It's that weight, durability, transport and actual reuse frequency must be assessed together.

A viable programme needs:

• A defined participant base: Closed business-to-business loops are generally easier to control than dispersed consumer returns.
• Container tracking: Businesses need visibility of location, condition and losses.
• Cleaning and inspection controls: Hygiene and product safety requirements must be built into the process.
• A total-cost model: Include reverse logistics, handling, storage, repairs and retirement, not only the container purchase price.
• A customer reason to return: Deposits, collection points or convenient return arrangements can support participation.

Reuse is a logistics decision before it's a material decision. Model the return journey first.

5. Plant-Based and Biopolymer Packaging

Plant-based biopolymers include materials such as polylactic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoates and starch-based plastics. They're engineered from renewable resources and can provide plastic-like flexibility, barrier performance or formability in suitable applications. That makes them attractive to food, retail, pharmaceutical, logistics and e-commerce businesses seeking alternatives to fossil-based polymer.

The important distinction is between bio-based, biodegradable and compostable. A material can be derived from renewable feedstock without being suitable for a particular composting route. It can also be technically compostable but unavailable to the local infrastructure needed to process it. Procurement teams should therefore ask where the packaging will go after use, not stop at the material's origin.

Treat certification as an operating requirement

A retailer might use PLA-based packaging for selected product lines, while a food producer could explore PHA for a format with specific end-of-life requirements. Pharmaceutical manufacturers may test biopolymer security bags, and retailers may consider compostable carrier bags. Each application needs product compatibility, storage and disposal testing.

Before approval, buyers should:

• Verify third-party certification: Confirm the claimed compostability or renewable-content standard for the target market.
• Test the contents: Oils, solvents, moisture and temperature can affect material performance.
• Check local acceptance: Ask the intended waste contractor or composting facility whether the format is accepted.
• Label the route clearly: Customers need practical instructions, especially where industrial composting is required.
• Request application-specific data: Generic claims won't establish suitability for a pharmaceutical, food or industrial product.

For a broader overview of material choices, MSP's guide to sustainable packaging materials can support early specification discussions. Buyers comparing specialist transport solutions may also find this guide to the best materials for metallic totes relevant when protection and repeated handling matter.

6. Biodegradable and Compostable Polythene

“Biodegradable polythene” is not a complete environmental claim. Results depend on the formulation, certification, product-protection requirements and the disposal system available after use. Compostable mailing bags can fit premium e-commerce, organic food, specialist retail and selected fashion applications, where lightweight protection and a defined end-of-life route align.

The operational test is simple: can the intended facility accept the bag, and will the customer use that route? Some formats need industrial composting rather than home composting. If a bag enters a conventional plastic recycling stream, it may contaminate that process or be rejected. General waste may leave its claimed benefit unrealised.

Match the material to a verified recovery route

A premium fashion brand could trial certified compostable mailing bags for a controlled product range. An organic food manufacturer might select a biodegradable format where the packaging remains compatible with oils, moisture and the contents. A specialist retailer could introduce compostable courier bags alongside clear disposal instructions.

Before procurement, assess five conditions:

• Certification: Confirm the relevant compostability standard and the conditions required for breakdown.
• Facility access: Identify the industrial composting service that will receive the used bags before placing a large order.
• Product compatibility: Test contact with oils, solvents, moisture and other contents during storage and transit.
• Customer instructions: State whether the pack belongs in home composting, industrial composting or another waste route.
• Controlled rollout: Use a premium or limited product line to measure protection, customer behaviour and actual recovery before wider adoption.

A credible business case requires more than a compostable specification. It requires a functioning collection programme, sufficient supply and evidence that the format reduces material impact without increasing damage or replacement shipments. Where those conditions are absent, conventional packaging with measurable material reduction may perform better in practice.

7. Water-Soluble Packaging Films

A detergent capsule wrapped in polyvinyl alcohol film dissolves in warm water, leaving no conventional package to collect. That benefit matters only when storage, product compatibility and wastewater treatment support the format.

Water-soluble films can contain measured doses of detergents, agrochemicals and selected industrial products, reducing direct handling of concentrated contents. Pharmaceutical uses may be possible, but moisture protection, dosage integrity and regulatory controls require formal validation.

Humidity can trigger premature degradation, and solvents, oils or active ingredients may affect film performance. The business must also verify that dissolution is safe for its wastewater route and treatment system. This material therefore suits a defined process, not ordinary courier bags or mailing envelopes.

A narrow use case can be a strength

Detergent brands such as Ecos and The Laundress are associated with dose-based formats using PVA film. Agrochemical producers may use soluble films for measured applications, while specialist chemical businesses can consider them where water compatibility is already built into the operating process.

Pharmaceutical manufacturers need to test storage conditions, moisture barriers, dosage accuracy and regulatory obligations before selecting the format. The operational case depends on repeatable performance at the intended volume, reliable supply and a disposal route that uses dissolution as designed.

The procurement test should include:

• Environmental stability: Store samples under intended warehouse and transport conditions.
• Content compatibility: Test contact with solvents, oils and active ingredients.
• Dissolution behaviour: Confirm performance in the actual water temperature and treatment conditions.
• Regulatory compliance: Check requirements for food contact, pharmaceuticals, chemicals or other controlled goods.
• Commercial fit: Use the format where reduced handling or residue justifies added testing and process complexity.

Water-soluble film can remove a difficult handling step. Its impact depends on the complete chain, from dry storage and product protection to controlled dissolution and wastewater treatment.

8. Mushroom-Based and Mycelium Packaging

Mycelium packaging is most credible as a replacement for selected foam or moulded-plastic inserts, rather than as a universal pack format. Fungal networks bind cellulose and agricultural waste fibres into lightweight components that cushion or separate products. For context on the broader ecological role, see research on fungi contributions to sustainability.

The strongest early applications sit in premium fashion, cosmetics and specialist electronics. These sectors can justify distinctive presentation alongside product protection, while flexible films and papers remain more familiar for high-volume primary packaging. Bolt Threads has explored mycelium materials, and Ecovative Design and MycoWorks are names buyers may encounter during technology scouting.

Start with cushioning, not a complete pack redesign

A mycelium insert can protect luxury goods, electronics or cosmetics while adding a tactile brand experience. Its commercial case depends on moisture tolerance, dimensional consistency, tooling, lead times and available production volume. Those constraints make a focused insert pilot more practical than replacing the entire package at once.

A sensible pilot should examine:

• Protection: Run compression, drop, vibration and abrasion tests on the actual product.
• Moisture behaviour: Request performance data for warehouse and transport conditions, especially damp routes.
• Supply capacity: Confirm repeat-batch output and dimensional consistency.
• End of life: Give customers clear composting guidance and verify the material's contents and local disposal options.
• Positioning: Use the format where product value and brand differentiation can support development costs.

Treat mycelium as a targeted protective component until supply, performance and disposal evidence support broader use.

The technology is promising, but a responsible specification separates an attractive prototype from a dependable packaging supply chain.

9. Seaweed and Algae-Based Packaging Films

Notpla's seaweed-based takeaway containers have moved from prototype work into retail shelves in London. The commercial question is whether that model can scale beyond food service without weakening product protection, raising handling costs or depending on disposal systems that customers cannot access.

Seaweed and algae films are most credible in selected food-contact and premium applications, where flexible, water-soluble, edible or biodegradable packaging can contribute to the product experience. Their marine origin does not guarantee performance. Humidity, temperature, contents, shelf life, sealing and handling all affect suitability. A film designed for a dry food portion may fail with liquids, oily products or pharmaceutical items.

Assess the marine-material story carefully

A premium beverage brand might test seaweed film as a barrier or presentation layer. Cosmetics companies can examine it for secondary protection, while pharmaceutical researchers may investigate marine biopolymers for controlled applications. These are emerging, technology-led uses, unlike established paper or recycled polythene formats with broader supply and recycling experience.

Buyers should request:

• Harvesting evidence: Confirm responsible seaweed sourcing and credible documentation.
• Barrier testing: Measure moisture, oxygen, oil and temperature performance against actual product requirements.
• Storage controls: Set warehouse conditions and acceptable shelf-life limits.
• Regulatory confirmation: Check food-contact, pharmaceutical and packaging claims in the target market.
• End-of-life evidence: Verify whether the intended disposal route exists where the product will be sold.
• A realistic rollout: Start with a contained premium application before considering higher-volume dispatch.

Specify seaweed films only where product fit, measurable material reduction and local disposal routes are documented.

Their value depends on matching a defined product and customer experience to available supply, operating volume and end-of-life infrastructure.

10. Recycled and Upcycled Textile Packaging

A jewellery brand ships a ring in a recycled linen pouch that the customer keeps for travel or storage. The second life makes the material choice defensible, not the fabric alone. Textile packaging suits premium goods when the pack protects the product and remains useful after delivery.

Luxury fashion brands may use organic cotton pouches, jewellery retailers recycled linen wraps, and skincare brands textile formats for gift presentation. Independent designers and ethical fashion businesses can use upcycled fabric to create distinctive presentation. These applications generally fit lower-volume, higher-value products better than routine dispatch, because textiles can require more material than a thin mailer.

Make the second life obvious

A textile pack should replace a separate storage, travel or protection item, rather than add a decorative layer that is quickly discarded. Evaluate its performance against product protection, sector fit, supply availability, production volume and local end-of-life options.

Specification questions include:

• Material provenance: Confirm whether the fabric is recycled, recovered, responsibly sourced or a blend.
• Durability: Test seams, abrasion, colour fastness and repeated handling.
• Customer usability: Give the pouch a clear reuse purpose, such as storage, travel or product protection.
• Supply consistency: Check whether recovered feedstock can support repeat production and consistent colours.
• Lifecycle planning: Decide how damaged textiles can be repaired, repurposed or recycled.

Specify textile packaging when its second use is defined, durable and likely to occur.

Measure performance through reuse behaviour, not only the first delivery. A pouch that replaces another storage item has a stronger operational rationale than one used solely to improve unboxing photographs. The material choice also depends on whether suppliers can maintain quality and volume without shifting the burden to difficult disposal.

10 Sustainable Packaging Options Comparison

Solution	Implementation Complexity 🔄	Resource & Cost ⚡	Expected Outcomes 📊	Ideal Use Cases 💡	Key Advantages ⭐
Recycled Polythene Packaging	Low 🔄, drop‑in supply‑chain substitution with supplier qualification	Moderate ⚡, uses recycled feedstock; cost‑effective at scale	Reduces virgin plastic demand and landfill; retains protective performance	High‑volume courier, e‑commerce, retail carrier bags	Cost‑effective at scale; supports circular economy
Minimalist & Right‑Sized Design	Medium 🔄, requires design optimisation and transit testing	Low ⚡, material reduction lowers ongoing costs; upfront design investment	Immediate material and shipping savings; less waste	E‑commerce fulfilment, high‑volume SKUs, logistics optimisation	Rapid ROI; reduces weight and handling inefficiencies
Paper‑Based Packaging & Mailers	Low–Medium 🔄, material swap; may need lamination for moisture	Moderate ⚡, recyclable feedstock but heavier and higher unit cost	Fully recyclable/biodegradable; limited moisture protection	Clothing, books, lightweight e‑commerce items	Strong consumer sustainability perception; recyclable
Reusable & Returnable Systems	High 🔄, reverse logistics, cleaning, tracking and management	High ⚡, significant upfront capital; potential long‑term savings	Major per‑use material reduction and waste avoidance when scaled	B2B supply chains, subscription services, closed‑loop networks	Large lifecycle impact; improves brand loyalty and control
Plant‑Based & Biopolymer Packaging	Medium 🔄, processing compatible but needs certification checks	Moderate–High ⚡, renewable inputs; 20–40% price premium typical	Lowers fossil dependence; industrially compostable where facilities exist	Retail, food, e‑commerce where composting is available	Renewable feedstock; functionality similar to conventional plastics
Biodegradable & Compostable Polythene	Low–Medium 🔄, manufacturing similar to polythene; requires EoL planning	Moderate ⚡, ~15–30% cost premium; reliant on composting infrastructure	Compostable in certified facilities; may contaminate recycling streams if misdisposed	Premium e‑commerce, organic products, composting‑ready markets	Certified compostable end‑of‑life; consumer appeal
Water‑Soluble Packaging Films	Medium 🔄, specialised storage/handling and rigorous compatibility testing	High ⚡, 50–100% cost premium; specialist suppliers	Eliminates packaging residue for compatible products; niche application	Unit‑dose pharma, detergents, agrochemicals	Complete waste elimination for suitable use cases; strong differentiation
Mushroom‑Based / Mycelium Packaging	Medium–High 🔄, novel production process; limited suppliers	High ⚡, 3–5× cost; scale currently limited	Home‑compostable, regenerative material with strong environmental credentials	Premium protective fill, luxury brands, limited runs	Home‑compostable; produced from agricultural waste; distinctive branding
Seaweed & Algae‑Based Films	Medium 🔄, emerging tech requiring supplier and regulatory vetting	High ⚡, early‑stage premium cost and limited capacity	Marine‑biodegradable outcomes; ocean‑positive messaging	Food contact, premium/eco brands, specialised applications	Biodegrades in marine environments; no competition with food crops
Recycled & Upcycled Textile Packaging	Medium 🔄, sourcing variability and manufacturing adaptation	High ⚡, 100–200% premium; heavier (higher shipping cost)	Distinctive unboxing; textile waste diverted; reusable by consumers	Luxury goods, jewellery, premium skincare, artisanal brands	High perceived value; reusable and memorable brand experience

Turn Sustainable Packaging Into a Measurable Operating Decision

Choosing between sustainable packaging examples starts with the product, not the material catalogue. Define the item's fragility, weight, dimensions, moisture sensitivity, security requirements and expected handling conditions. A pharmaceutical security bag, an e-commerce garment mailer and an industrial sack will face different risks, so they shouldn't share a specification merely because they appear to use similar film.

Measure the current system before changing it. Record material weight per unit, pack dimensions, annual purchasing volume, packing time, transport efficiency, damage rates, replacement shipments and disposal arrangements. The UK packaging sector shows why material performance needs this level of precision. In 2024, paper and cardboard reached a 74.3% recycling rate, while plastic reached 51.0%, but the practical result still depends on format, contamination, collection and sorting (UK packaging waste statistics).

Use a disciplined selection sequence:

• Define the operating requirement: Set protection, security, hygiene, shelf-life and presentation criteria.
• Measure material use: Establish current weight, dimensions, layers and rejected stock.
• Shortlist the end-of-life route: Compare recycling, industrial composting, home composting, reuse and specialist disposal based on the actual destination.
• Test representative orders: Include normal and difficult products, packing variation and realistic transport handling.
• Confirm supply readiness: Check manufacturing capacity, lead times, batch consistency, certifications and contingency arrangements.
• Track the result: Monitor packaging weight, recycled or renewable content, purchase cost, transport efficiency, return rates, damage and disposal outcomes.

The option that fits each sector will differ. High-volume e-commerce and logistics operations will often prioritise recycled polythene, paper mailers and right-sized formats because they need reliable supply, fast packing and controlled cost. Pharmaceutical and industrial buyers may favour tested security bags, specialist films or water-soluble formats where containment and regulatory compliance come first. Premium retail can justify mycelium, textile, seaweed or carefully designed reusable packaging when presentation and customer participation support the model. Closed-loop supply chains are the strongest candidates for returnable crates, containers and transit packaging because the reverse route is easier to control.

Compliance also changes the economics. UK producers must report packaging data by material, weight and nation of sale, and from 1 January 2025 must assess recyclability because the rating affects disposal fees under the packaging EPR framework (UK packaging EPR data guidance). UK material-specific recycling targets for 2025 to 2027 include 75%, 77% and 79% for paper, board or fibre-based composite material, 55%, 57% and 59% for plastic, and 74%, 76% and 78% for glass (UK packaging recycling obligations). Those targets make recyclability, design and data quality procurement issues, not just branding considerations.

Review high-volume specifications with a capable supplier such as MSP Packaging before committing to a material change. A supplier should help you compare plain and bespoke formats, recycled or sustainable films, paper options, dimensions and production capacity against the way your operation packs, protects and distributes products.

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MSP Packaging supplies courier bags, mailing bags, tamper-evident security bags, pharmaceutical bags, sacks, carrier bags and bespoke flexible packaging in plain or printed formats, using virgin, recycled or sustainable materials where appropriate. Visit MSP Packaging to discuss your current packaging specification, test practical alternatives and plan a supply solution suited to your volume and end-of-life requirements.